As markets increasingly grow for electric vehicles and portable electronic devices, development of quick charging/discharging, long lifespan, and high safety lithium ion batteries is desired. Compared to graphite, Li—Ti—O materials (e.g., lithium titanate and TiO2) as anode active materials of lithium ion batteries draw attention by having smaller volume change during lithiation/delithiation, better high-rate performance, cycling stability, and safety. For example, Li4Ti5O12, as one of the Li—Ti—O materials, is a binary Li2O—TiO2 composition as Li4Ti5O12 can be seen as 2Li2O.5TiO2. Li4Ti5O12 has a “zero stain” nature meaning substantially no volume change in the material during cycling, a high potential for lithium insertion (1.55V vs. Li/Li+) with no lithium metal deposition, and a high coulombic efficiency. Anatase TiO2, as another Li—Ti—O material, has a quick insertion/extraction of lithium ions, and a small volume change (e.g., 3%˜4%) during the lithium insertion.